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Counterfactuals as Behavioral Primes: Priming the Simulation Heuristic and Consideration of Alternatives,☆☆

https://doi.org/10.1006/jesp.1999.1409Get rights and content

Abstract

We demonstrate that counterfactuals prime a mental simulation mind-set in which relevant but potentially converse alternatives are considered and that this mind-set activation has behavioral consequences. This mind-set is closely related to the simulation heuristic (Kahneman & Tversky, 1982). Participants primed with a counterfactual were more likely to solve the Duncker candle problem (Experiment 1), suggesting that they noticed an alternative function for one of the objects, an awareness that is critical to solving the problem. Participants primed with a counterfactual were more likely to simultaneously affirm the consequent and select the potentially falsifying card, but without selecting the irrelevant card, in the Wason card selection task, suggesting that they were testing both the stated conditional and its reverse (Experiment 2). The increased affirmations of the consequent decreased correct solutions on the task—thus, the primed mind-set can bias or debias thought and action. Finally, Experiment 3 provides further evidence that counterfactual primes increase the accessibility of relevant alternatives. Counterfactual primes attenuated the confirmation bias in a trait hypothesis testing context by increasing the selection of questions designed to elicit hypothesis-disconfirming answers, but without increasing the selection of neutral questions. The nature of priming effects and the role of counterfactual thinking in biasing and debiasing thought and action are discussed.

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    The research presented in this article was supported by a National Science Foundation Graduate Fellowship and a National Science Foundation Facilitation Award to the first author. The authors thank Ian Skurnik for his helpful comments throughout the course of this research. The authors also thank Deborah Abrams, Erich Greene, and Rahul Mistry for their helpful comments during the conducting of the research. The comments of Keith Markman on an earlier draft of this article were invaluable.

    ☆☆

    Address correspondence and reprint requests to Adam Galinsky, Organization Department, Leverone Hall, 2001 Sheridan Road, Kellogg School of Management, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL 60208. E-mail: [email protected].

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