Table 5

Intervention suggestions

Intervention idea	Suggested in article authored by
INCREASE MEDICAL KNOWLEDGE AND EXPERIENCE
General
Increase expertise and experience	Kassirer et al47; Gigerenzer48; Elstein49; Klein50 51; Berner and Graber1; Bazerman and Moore52; Norman53
Training
Routinely test competency in diagnostic accuracy; provide training to increase competency	Smith-Bindman et al54; Singh et al55

Continuing education	Bowen56; Davis et al57

Focused training on specific content area	Freidlander and Phillips58; Gentner59; Hershberger et al60; Parmley61

Improve learning skills, per se	Hogarth62

Simulation
Develop simulation exercises to expose clinicians to a greater number and variety of case presentations	Bond et al63
Feedback and calibration
Provide intensive, detailed, specific feedback	Smith-Bindman et al54; Schiff64; Jamtvedt et al65; Papa et al66; Stone and Opel67; Alpert and Hillman68; Arkes69; Humble et al70; Pulford and Colman71; Subbotin72

Learn from errors	Fischer et al73; Hogarth62; Eva74

IMPROVE INTUITIVE AND DELIBERATE PROCESSES IN DECISION-MAKING
General
Improve general training on clinical reasoning & the dual process model	Berner and Graber1; Kassirer et al47; Elstein49; Eva74 75; Croskerry76–78; Norman53; Wolpaw et al23
Improve system 1 processing
Improve training on intuitive processing and its shortcomings	Berner and Graber1; Croskerry76–78; Wedding and Faust79 Groves et al80; Pines81; Moulton et al,82 Trowbridge83; Kuhn84

Debias your own intuitive decisions	Croskerry 76–78; Norman53; Fischhoff85; Milkman86 Larrick87; Gentner et al59; Koriat et al88; Renner and Renner89; Estrada et al90 Scott91; Slovic and Fischoff92 Arkes et al69 154; Lichtenstein et al93

Improve metacognition, nurture intuition and use of reflective practice	Schon94; Greenhalgh95; Mamede et al96; Singh et al97; Brawn98; Gregory99; Noddings and Shore100; Quirk101; Klein51; Hogarth62; Hamm and Zubialde102; Moulton et al82; Trowbridge83; Croskerry76–78 103

Use a checklist or related tools	Leonidas104; Gawande105; Trowbridge83; Ely et al106
Consider alternatives; consider the opposite; use prospective hindsight; think like an outsider	Taleb107; Wedding and Faust79; Sackett et al158; Brannick et al108; Milkman et al86; Arkes109; Croskerry78; Schwenk110; Baron111; Mitchell et al112; Bazerman and Moore86; Mussweiler113; Lord et al114; Arzy et al115; Gorman and Gorman116; Hirt and Markman117; Mumma and Steven118; Singh97
Improve system 2 processing
Teach principles of clinical reasoning; use evidence-based medicine and normative decision-making	Wedding and Faust79; Strauss et al119; Sox120; Dobbie et al121; Khan and Coomarasamy122; Croskerry123; Pines81; Ullman124; Pauker and Kassirer125; Kassirer126; Brannick et al108

Provide training on the typical pitfalls of specific clinical conditions & situations	Groves et al80; Croskerry78; Pines81

GET HELP FROM OTHER PEOPLE AND/OR DECISION SUPPORT TOOLS
Second opinions
Use specialist consultants & second opinions; improve team-based decisions, for example, by having a devil's advocate	Elstein49; Christensen et al34; Tatarka127

Second readings in pathology	Ullman124; Raab128
Groups and librarians
Get help from groups or librarians	Zipperer and Sykes129; Albert130; Zipperer131
Actuarial decisions
Use of guidelines, clinical algorithms, linear models and mnemonics to reduce reliance on memory	Elstein49; Croskerry78; Berner and Graber1; Tatarka127; Milkman et al86; Wedding and Faust79; Wedding132; Fischhoff85
Focused decision support
Decision support tool on a specific condition	Hunt et al133; Klassen et al134; Garg et al135; Cannon and Allen136

Improve data display through graphics	Radecki and Medow137; Reyna et al138; Bhandari et al139; Cook and Smallman140

Embedded decision support tools; Infobuttons	Kawamoto and Loback141
General decision support
Improve medical records	Hamm and Zubialde102; Schiff and Bates142