Table 1

Characteristics of the articles included in the review and definition of embedded research/researcher

Article	Country	Year	Sector	Definition of embedded research/researcher	Characteristics of the embedded researcher/researchers	Perceived benefits	Perceived challenges
Groundwater-Smith and Mockler28	Australia	2002	Education	“Researcher in Residence is a phrase used to connote a role analogous to a ‘writer in residence’ or ‘artist in residence’. However, it is a positioning which is distinctive from being a resident in the fullest sense of the term, in that the researcher maintains her affiliation with her university and broader educational research and professional development consultancy”.28	Researcher has relative autonomy in the host organisation.	If the embedded position is funded by the host organisation, it allows the researcher to develop long-term relationships with staff and guarantee the sustainability of the research.	The researcher might face difficulties understanding and navigating the terrain of the host organisation, and thus be seen permanently as an ‘outsider.’
Reiter-Theil29	Switzerland	2004	Health	Researchers carrying out research in the relevant context without performing the same practices as those studied.	Carried out observations and documented clinical practice. Acted as ‘some kind of team member.’	Provided valid and meaningful results to practice. Allowed researchers to ask the ‘right’ questions.	Effort required to maintain trust, reliability and stamina among clinicians and research team.
Hentschel et al30	Germany/Switzerland	2006	Health	“Method of the embedded researcher […] allows for a combination of methods of systematic observation and case documentation in a naturalistic setting”.30	Carried out observations and documented clinical practice. Used the embedded research method outlined in.29	Not specified	Not specified
Pyett et al31	Australia	2008	Health	Three researchers-in-residence employed by an aboriginal community-controlled health organisation. Two of the researchers are also affiliated to a university.31	–	–	–
Nutley et al32	UK	2008	Education	“Interactive relationship between researchers, managers, and practitioners in the development of research-based guidance, protocols, and tools”.32	Based on the translation of research into practice by individuals in local policy or management roles. Research becomes embedded in systems, processes and standards.	Model may be suited to staff in certain circumstances and where practice tools can be tailored to the local context.	Embedded research model needs to adapt to the particular research questions that need to be addressed.
Jenness33	USA	2008	Judicial system	“I use the term embedded researcher to talk about something […] that provides multiple vantage points from which to view the scene: occupying multiple locations within and under the control of a single field of play while also moving from one site to another, one level of analysis to another, and one constituency to another-ultimately having a presence as a didactic participant throughout a field of play”.33	Worked as ‘a public servant.’ Carried out in-depth fieldwork with inmates and wardens in the California prison system.	A good way to get a unique perspective, insight and data.	The researcher has relations of dependence with the host organisation, which might shape the type of research that is conducted and the dissemination of findings.
Wong34	Australia	2009	Education	Researcher employed full-time to conduct research within an organisation.	Worked alongside, shared office space and socialised with practitioners. Embedded researchers participated in six studies focused on programme evaluations (outcomes and processes) and research projects addressing questions that arose from practice and/or the literature. One of the goals was also to increase staff engagement with research.	Increased local staff members' capacity to conduct research. Contributed to the continuous improvement of programme delivery. Provided local staff the opportunity to reflect on their work, increase their skills and knowledge, and collaborate with other staff members. Increased the organisation's capacity to inform policy and practice.	Not all researchers are suitable for embedded roles; personal characteristics and dispositions play an important role. There needs to be a ‘good fit’ between the researcher and the organisation. Sharing of findings might be restricted if the organisation owns the intellectual property.
Nutley et al35	UK	2009	Social care	“Research enters practice indirectly; it becomes embedded in systems, processes and standards. […] Research knowledge is translated into frontline practice activities by intermediaries”.35	Translation of research-insights into practice activities.	Model may be suited to staff in certain circumstances and where practice tools can be tailored to the local context.	Embedded research model needs to adapt to the particular research questions that need to be addressed.
Hackett and Rhoten36	USA	2011	Science policy	Two researchers worked as transient government officials at the National Science Foundation (NSF) “with responsibility to manage a research program, direct a division, develop new research solicitations, serve on NSF policy committees, and conduct our research”.36	Managed a research programme and carried out research. Developed new research solicitations. Served on internal committees.	Guarantees the researchers’ access to staff members and provides the opportunity for witnessing internal events and processes. Allows the researchers to engage in discussion and reflection with members of the organisation. Allows researchers to engage with real problems in a real context.	Researchers might face restrictions in the dissemination of findings. Researchers occupy an intermediate status with commitments to often conflicting values.
Lewis and Russell37	UK	2011	Health	“A situationally appropriate way of ‘doing ethnography’ that is founded on the principles and practice of immersion fieldwork while being responsive to working with reflexive collaborators, adaptive to the requirements of ethics and other forms of research regulation, and accommodating to audiences eager for new forms of ethnographic output”.37	Researcher acts as ‘some kind of team member.’ Researcher maintains a collaborative relationship with coworkers. Researcher uses traditional principles of ethnographic fieldwork.	Enables researchers to respond to collaborators’ needs and expectations.	Requires a certain critical distance. Researchers must deal with working in a state of 'in-between-ness.’
Rowley38	UK	2014	Education	“Individuals or teams who are either university-based or employed undertaking explicit research roles within host schools or other educational organizations, legitimated by staff status or membership with the purpose of identifying and implementing a collaborative research agenda”.23	Carried out quantitative and qualitative research to inform future practice. Performed informal tasks to develop trusting relationships. Attended and participated in steering board meetings. Developed reports sharing research findings.	The researcher has access to a wide range of people and informal practices, increasing the depth and diversity of collected data. The research can respond in an ad hoc way to data collection opportunities. Insider knowledge allows the researcher to tailor the research to meet the needs of the organisation.	Ethical regulation procedures cannot always be adapted to the realities and timeframes of embedded research. The researcher establishes commitments with multiple subgroups within the organisation which can sometimes come into conflict. The researcher operates in a state of ‘in-between-ness’ between the organisation and university.
Marshall et al14	UK	2014	Health	Researcher is a core member of the delivery team, with a sense of shared responsibility for the success or failure of an improvement initiative.	Researcher establishes trusting relationships with staff. Researcher considers their expertise to be complementary to that of other team members.	The embedded research approach addresses the barriers between researchers and practitioners, leading to the negotiation of knowledge and increasing the chances it will be used in practice.	Embedded researchers are subjected to different requirements for career development in the academic and health organisations, which are not always compatible.Research findings might conflict with organisational goals. Further development and evaluation of the approach are required.
Marshall3	UK	2014	Health	“Researchers-in-Residence blur the traditional boundary between their expertise and that of the health service team by becoming an integral part of the team rather than central commentators”.3	The researchers are in close connection to routine practice and produce transferrable knowledge.	The researcher brought unique expertise to the team and created new evidence in collaborative form.	Embedded research might not be considered valuable under the reward systems used in most academic institutions. Embedded approaches might put scientific objectivity at risk.
Marshall39	UK	2014	Health	“An integrated member of a service-based improvement team”.38	Negotiate their knowledge and integrate it with the expertise of practitioners. Researcher interprets research evidence in relation to the local context. Evaluates improvement efforts looking at the intended and unintended consequences of interventions.	Encourages researchers to be more useful to practitioners. Encourages practitioners to be responsive to scientific evidence. Can help deliver better care with limited resources.	There are no set guidelines on the required personal skills and level of experience of the researcher. Embedded researchers must negotiate between their sense of ownership over the work and their independent evaluation.
Duggan40	UK	2014	Education	“Individuals or teams who are either university-based or employed undertaking explicit research roles within host schools or other educational organizations, legitimated by staff status or membership with the purpose of identifying and implementing a collaborative research agenda”.23	Carried out qualitative research to collect evidence for a new initiative. Devised an evaluation framework. Contributed to funding applications for internal projects.	Allowed the researcher to gain insight into daily practice and the nuances of collaborative work.	Embedded research can be disrupted by policy, personnel or organisational change.
McGinity and Salokangas23	UK	2014	Education	“Individuals or teams who are either university-based or employed undertaking explicit research roles within host schools or other educational organizations, legitimated by staff status or membership with the purpose of identifying and implementing a collaborative research agenda”.23	Researchers ‘get under the skin’ of organisations in order to document multiple perspectives and processes. A ‘mutually beneficial relationship’ is created between the host organisation and university.	The researcher obtains greater access to the organisation, which facilitates data collection and can help with funding. The host organisation gains academic knowledge and critical approaches to inform its policies and practices.	Embedded research is a complex practice, influenced by organisational pressures, interests, and changes. Funding arrangements create particular power relations and shape the role of the embedded researcher. Flexibility, adaptation and reflexivity are required.
Eyre et al41	UK	2015	Health	“An emerging model of participative research […] that embraces the concept of ‘cocreating’ knowledge between researchers and practitioners.”40	Researcher is embedded in a programme team (employed by university but maintains an affiliation with the health organisations). Based on collaboration, reflection and collective inquiry. The researcher focuses on initiating change through shared learning and knowledge of the local context.	Increases research impact.	The embedded research approach needs to respond to the complex processes and structures of the organisations where the researcher works.