Table 1

Factors predicted to impact feedback effectiveness by Feedback Intervention Theory and by Cochrane systematic review

Feedback characteristicBrief definitionImpact on performance predicted by FITMeta-analytic findings from Kluger and DeNisi11Meta-analytic findings from Hysong,16 (healthcare specific)Meta-analytic findings from Ivers et al2 Cochrane review (healthcare specific)
Feedback characteristics—content
 Sign of feedback intervention (FI)Whether feedback (FB) was positive or negativeFIT has no specific predictionNo significant relation (n.s.)Not explicitly testedNot explicitly tested
 Correct–incorrectWhether the task was done correctly or incorrectlyn.s.Not explicitly tested
 Correct solution*Information about how to do the task correctly+++
 Velocity†Change from previous time period+++
 Attainment levelNumber or things produced−n.s.Insufficient variance to test
 Normative informationDirect comparison with others−n.s.Mixed findings
 NormsInformation about the performance of others−n.s.Insufficient studies to test
 Discouraging FIFB containing a destructive message or cues that discouraged the recipient−−Insufficient studies to test
 PraiseFB containing cues that praised the recipient−−Insufficient studies to test
Feedback characteristics—format
 Verbal FIFB (FB) delivered verbally−−−Small +
 Written FI†FB delivered in writing+n.s.++
 Both verbal and writtenFB delivered both verbally and in writingNot explicitly addressedNot explicitly testedInsufficient studies to testLarge +
 Graphical FI†FB delivered in a graphical format+n.s.−Not explicitly tested
 Computer FI†FB delivered by computer++Insufficient studies to test
 Public FIFB delivered in a public setting−n.s.Mixed findings
 Group FI*FB referring to group performance+n.s.+
 Individual FIFB referring to individual performanceAssumed in the theoryNot explicitly tested+
 Group + individual FIFB referring to both individual and group performanceNot explicitly addressedNot explicitly tested+
Situational and other variables
 FI frequencyHow often FB is deliveredFIT has no specific prediction−+Curvilinear relationship
 Goal settingWhether FB included difficult specific goals, moderate or ‘do your best’ goals or no goals++Insufficient studies to testcf. ‘explicit, measurable target and action plan’
 Explicit, measurable target AND action planFB included both an explicit target value and specific action steps for improvementCould be interpreted as variants of goal settingNot explicitly testedNot explicitly tested+
 Feedback sourceWho delivered the FBNot explicitly addressedNot explicitly testedNot explicitly testedSupervisor or colleague better than professional standards review
Direction of behaviour change required to improveWhether the recipient must increase or decrease current behaviourNot explicitly addressedNot explicitly testedNot explicitly testedEffect size for decrease in behaviour larger than for increase in behaviour
Task characteristics
 Task noveltySubjective familiarity with the task−n.s.Task characteristics were outside the scope of the Hysong15 meta-analysis, and thus not testedTask characteristics were outside the scope of the Ivers 2012 systematic review, and thus not tested
 Task complexityNumber of actions and dependencies among actions needed for successful task performance−−
 Time constraintWhether a time constraint existed on performance−n.s.
 Time durationHow long it takes to do the task once−n.s.
 CreativityDegree to which successful performance requires creativity−n.s.
Quantity–qualityWhether the measure of performance reflected quality or quantityFIT has no specific predictions for these task characteristics, as they do not provide adequate information about the amount of cognitive resources requiredn.s.
 Ratings vs objective performanceWhether performance was measured subjectively or objectivelyn.s.
 Transfer measureWhere the effect of FI on one task was measured on another taskn.s.
 Latency measureWhether or not the performance reflects latency or speedn.s.
Task typeTasks whose central action requires

  • ▸ Physical task

  • ▸ Physical action

−

  • ▸ Reaction time

  • ▸ Fast reaction time

n.s.

  • ▸ Memory task

  • ▸ Heavy memory load

+

  • ▸ Knowledge task

  • ▸ Specialised knowledge

n.s.

  • ▸ Following rules

  • ▸ Strict adherence to following rules (eg, following a recipe)

−

  • ▸ Vigilance task

  • ▸ Monitoring/vigilance

n.s.
Baseline compliancePerformer's level of compliance with desired practiceNot explicitly testedNot explicitly tested–

  • *Feedback characteristics predicted by FIT to shift attention to task details and activate task-learning processes, thereby improving feedback effectiveness.

  • †Feedback characteristics predicted by FIT to maintain attention on task motivation processes, thereby improving feedback effectiveness.