Elsevier

Health Policy

Volume 81, Issues 2–3, May 2007, Pages 207-217
Health Policy

Impact of joined-up HIV harm reduction and multidrug resistant tuberculosis control programmes in Estonia: System dynamics simulation model

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.healthpol.2006.05.021Get rights and content

Abstract

In Eastern Europe and Central Asia (ECA) the control of tuberculosis, multidrug resistant tuberculosis (MDRTB) and human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) poses important public health challenges. We used system dynamics simulation to determine impact on cumulative HIV/AIDS, tuberculosis and HIV-associated-tuberculosis deaths, over 20 years, of harm-reduction programmes to reduce needle-sharing and injection-frequency amongst injecting drug users (IDUs) and multidrug resistant tuberculosis (MDRTB) control in a population with an explosive HIV epidemic in IDUs and high MDRTB prevalence.

We estimate that the number of HIV-associated-deaths will decline by 30% with effective harm-reduction programmes but double if these are ineffective. In our model, effective MDRTB and HIV control reduces cumulative tuberculosis deaths by 54%, cumulative MDRTB deaths 15-fold and cumulative HIV-associated-tuberculosis-deaths 2-fold. Effective MDRTB control, without effective harm-reduction programmes, only reduce tuberculosis deaths by 22%. However, effective harm-reduction programme with a poor MDRTB control reduce cumulative tuberculosis deaths by 34%, MDRTB by 14% and HIV-associated-tuberculosis by 56%. Even with good control programmes for drug sensitive TB, neglecting harm reduction and MDRTB control will result in 50% more tuberculosis-related deaths than if both are effectively addressed. Effective harm-reduction programmes reduces cumulative deaths from tuberculosis more substantively than effective MDRTB control.

Our finding have important policy implications for communicable disease policies in post-Soviet countries, which need to substantially change if they are to effectively address the emerging HIV and MDRTB epidemics.

Introduction

In Eastern Europe and Central Asia (ECA) the control of tuberculosis, multidrug resistant tuberculosis (MDRTB) and human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) poses important public health challenges [1]. Damage inflicted by HIV on cell-mediated immunity is a major risk factor for progression of latent tuberculosis infection to active disease. Death rates in patients with MDRTB are often high, particularly in individuals co-infected with HIV [2].

At a population level, the impact of HIV on tuberculosis rates will, amongst other factors, depend on: (a) the prevalence of latent tuberculosis infection; (b) the prevalence of active tuberculosis and pulmonary tuberculosis; (c) the prevalence of drug resistant tuberculosis; (d) the prevalence of HIV and the populations infected; (e) degree of immune suppression in HIV-infected individuals; (f) effectiveness of interventions aimed at controlling and treating tuberculosis, other opportunistic infections, and HIV.

Estonia is a Baltic State that regained independence from the USSR in 1991 and, in 2004, joined the European Union (EU). The country is witnessing an explosion in new cases of HIV where the cumulative number of newly identified cases of HIV has risen from 8 new cases in 1996 to a peak of 1474 new cases in 2001, a rate of increase that exceeds that of all other states in the former Soviet Union (FSU) [3]. By the end of 2004, there were almost 4500 registered HIV positive individuals [4]. Concurrent with this increase in the number of HIV infections, tuberculosis notifications have also increased, from 26 per 100,000 in 1992 to 52 per 100,000 in 1999, although since 2000, when the WHO-recommended directly observed therapy strategy (DOTS) was introduced, notifications of tuberculosis have stabilized [5]. In 1998, Estonia had one of the highest MDRTB rates in the world—with 14% of newly diagnosed pulmonary tuberculosis cases being MDRTB [5]. The tuberculosis global surveillance program identified Estonia as one of the “hot spots” for high MDRTB prevalence [6], [7], [8]. Although there is an ongoing programme to manage and control MDRTB, cure rates were initially estimated to be 20% but unpublished results indicate the cure rates may be increasing to around 50–60% (personal communication, Dr. Manfred Danilovits, National TB Programme, March 2005). Weaknesses in MDRTB control are of particular concern where HIV prevalence is also high or rising [2], [3]. Given the current immaturity of the HIV epidemic in Estonia, the epidemiological impact of the linkage between HIV and tuberculosis is not yet evident, but is likely to become so as populations at risk of HIV acquisition and progression mix with those who have active tuberculosis. As immune function deteriorates in those co-infected, the number of cases of active HIV-associated tuberculosis is likely to rise.

Although many factors impact upon HIV spread in the FSU, epidemics have been principally driven by injecting drug use [3], [9], [10], [11], [12]. In Estonia, injecting drug use remains the main driver of the epidemic with approximately 90% of new HIV infections associated with drug use [12].

This paper explores the potential epidemiological impact of different policy choices in communicable disease control in a setting where control of MDRTB and HIV are both priority public health challenges.

Section snippets

Methodology

We developed a system dynamics (SD) simulation model [13], [14], [15], described in detail elsewhere [16], to represent the transmission dynamics of tuberculosis and HIV. The transmission of infectious diseases is complex, involving interconnected systems with feedback loops, time delays and non-linear relationships. The behaviour of these complex systems is generally difficult to predict. Formal modelling approaches, such as SD, may be used to represent the transmission dynamics and simulate

Results

Possible outcomes for each of the five scenarios are summarised in Table 3 and are presented graphically in Fig. 2, Fig. 3. Under the baseline scenario, which represents the current situation with respect to the HIV/AIDS transmission drivers (PSH and DIF) and MDRTB cure rates, the cumulative number of AIDS deaths will reach 10,522 by the year 2023. With respect to tuberculosis deaths, the total cumulative tuberculosis-associated deaths will be 1543—of which 1066 will be deaths from DSTB (70%)

Discussion

Our findings have important policy implications and inform decisions developing communicable disease programme in Europe. We demonstrate close interrelationships between HIV, DSTB and MDRTB. In settings of high MDRTB prevalence, with immature, yet explosive HIV epidemics among IDUs, effective HIV harm reduction and DSTB/MDRTB control programmes must be established concurrently if substantial numbers of deaths are to be averted. Early in an HIV epidemic centred on the IDU population, inadequate

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